Socio-Economic Challenges Affecting Construction Women Labourers (WCLs) in The Nigerian Construction Sector (NCS)
1Saka, Najim,2Adegbembo, Taiwo Fadeke,3Anakor, C. A
1,2Department of Quantity Surveying, Federal University of Technology, Akure, Ondo State, Nigeria
33Department of Quantity Surveying, Lagos State Polytechnic, Ikorodu Lagos State, Nigeria
https://doi.org/10.47191/jefms/v5-i1-05ABSTRACT:
Women constitute about half of the population of Nigeria and thus a critical mass in the human capital of the country. They make significant contributions to social and economic development of the society, yet they are never appreciated nor supported by public or private institutions. Recently there have been a growing number of women in construction labour work in the Nigerian Construction Sector (NCS) - an area hitherto exclusively preserved of the male folks. This study investigates aspects of social and economic conditions of women construction labourers (WCLs) in Ondo State Southwest Nigeria. Convenience and Snowball sampling were used to sample 101 WCLs. Simple descriptive statistics was used to analyze the data. The result indicates that most WCLs are low in education and skills hence they mostly participate in supportive roles that are energetic. The WCLs are exposed to multiple risks due to poor Health, Safety and Environment (HSE), welfare and social protection of Nigerian Construction Contractors (NCCs) in the informal construction sub sector of the NCS. The study recommends for the improvement and enforcement of HSE standards, welfare package and training in the NCS.
KEYWORDS:
Nigerian Construction Sector, Nigerian Construction Contractors, Women Construction Labourers, economic and social challenges
REFERENCES:
1) Aboribo, R. I., Opara, J. A & Nosike, A. N. (2000). Women and Development in Nigeria: A Contemporary Perspective, African Journal of Social and Policy Studies, 1(2): 73–79.
2) Adegbite, A. A. (1994). Analysis of hand anthropometric data on Nigerian females in relation to hand tool design; A case study of Gari processors, unpublished B.Sc. project, University of Ibadan, Nigeria
3) Adeyemi, A.Y., Ojo, S. O., Aina, O. O. & Ayangade, J. A. (2004). “Construction process rationalization strategies or sustainable mass housing delivery in Nigeria”, Proceedings of XXXII-IAHS World Housing Congress, Trento
4) Adeyemi, A. Y., Ojo, S. O., Aina, O. O & Olanipekun, E. A. (2006). Empirical Evidence of Women under-representation in the Construction Industry in Nigeria. Journal of Women in Management Review, 21(7), 567 ― 577.
5) Adeyemo, A (1984). Woman in Rural Areas: A Case Study of Southwestern Nigeria, Canadian Journal of African Studies / Revue Canadienne des Études Africaines, 18(3), 563-572
6) Agapiou A. and Dainty A.R.J. (2003). “Client-led approaches to increasing participation of women and ethnic minorities in the construction workforce: A framework for change”. Journal of Contract Procurement 9(PT 2): 4-16
7) Agapiou, A. (2002). “Perceptions of gender roles and attitudes toward work among male and female operatives in the Scottish construction industry”, Construction Management and Economics 20(8): 697-705
8) Agberia, J.T. (1996). ‘The Role of Women in the Development of Nigerian Pottery Art: Abatan and Kwali as Paradigm of Two Traditions’, in Yomi Oruwari (ed.), Women, Development and Nigerian Environment, pp. 156–62. Ibadan: Vantage Publishers
9) Aguirre, D., Leila, H., Christine, R. & Karim, S. (2012). Empowering the Third Billion. Women and the World of Work in 2012, Booz and Company.
10) Ajayi, M. A. & Olotuah, O. A. (2005). ‘Violation of Women’s Property Rights within the Family’, Agenda, No. 66, Gender-Based Violence Trilogy, 1(1): 58–63.
11) Akomolafe, M. A & Mohammed, M. A. (2015). Gender Barrier in Construction Industry: A Review of Women Involvement, International Journal Modern Management Science, 4(1), 10-21
12) Aladekomo, F. O. (2004). Casual Labour in a Nigerian Urban Center, Journal of Social Science 9(3), 207-213
13) Amali, E. (1989). ‘The Role of Women in Agricultural Development Process’, Development Studies Review, 2(1 & 2): 50–57
14) Amaratunga, D., Haigh, R., Lee, A., Shanmugan, M. & Elvitigala, G. (2006) Construction Industry and Women: A Review of the Barriers. In: (Eds) Amaratunga, D., Shanmugan, M., Haigh, R., and Vrijhoef, R. Proceedings of the 6th International Post Graduate Research Conference. Delft Technical University, the Netherlands, 6th-7th April, 2006, 559-571
15) Anumba, C., Dainty, A., Ison, S. & Sergeant, A. (2004). the utilisation of GIS in the construction labour market planning process, proceedings COBRA 2004 at Leeds 7-8 September
16) Bagilhole, B. M., Dainty, A. R. J. & Neale, R. H. (1995). Innovative personnel practices for improving women's careers in construction, In: Proceedings of 11th ARCOM Conference, September 18-20, York
17) Barthorpe, S, Duncan, R & Miller, C. (1999). A literature review on studies in culture: A pluralistic concept. In Ogunlana, S.O. (Ed.) Profitable Partnering in Construction Procurement, Spon, London, pp. 533-542
18) Benneth, J. F., Davidson, M. J. & Gale, A. W. (1999). Women in construction: a comparative investigation into the expectations and experiences of female and male construction undergraduates and employees, Women in Management Review, 14 (7), 273-91
19) Boman, M. (1996). Forging better links between industry, education and community: women in engineering perspective, In: Proceedings of IIR Conference on Women in Engineering, May 8±9, Sydney
20) Callaway, A. (1964). Nigeria’s Indigenous Education: The Apprentice System: ODU. Journal of West African Studies, 1(1), 62-79
21) Callaway, A. (1979). The Urban Informal Sector, Paper Presented at the National Conference on Manpower Constraints to Nigeria’s Economic Development 29 January to 1 February
22) Campbell, D. & Ahmed, I. (2012). The Labour Market in Developing Countries, Retrieved October 29 from http://www.iza.org/conference_files/worldb2012/campbell_d2780.pdf.
23) Carr, M. (2004). Chains of Fortunes: Linking Women Producers and Workers with Global Markets, London: Commonwealth Secretariat
24) Census of India (2001). New Delhi: Government of India
25) Charles, N. (1993). Gender divisions and social change, Harvester Wheatsheaf
26) CIB (1996). Tomorrow’s team: women and men in construction, CIB Working Group 8 Report, Thomas Telford, London.
27) CITB-Construction Skills (2004b). CITB-Construction Skills, Norfolk, available online: www.citb.co.uk/equal-ops/statistics
28) Clark, L., & Wall, C. (1998). UK construction skills in the context of European developments, Construction Management and Economics, 16(5), 553–67
29) Clarke, L. (2004). Women in construction, Bruxelles, CLR/Reed Business Information
30) Construction Industry Board (1996). Tomorrow's Team: Women and Men in Construction. Thomas Telford, UK
31) Construction Industry Training Board (CITB) (2004). Trainee Numbers Survey, CITB, Bircham Newton
32) Construction Industry Training Board Construction Skills, (2002). Employers Skills Needs Survey 2002, www.citb.org.uk/researcj/pdf/empl-skill-need-survey-2002
33) Dainty, A., Bagilhole, B. & Neale, R. (2000a). A grounded theory of women's under achievement in large UK construction companies, Construction Management and Economics 18, 239-250
34) Dainty, A. R. J. (1998). A grounded theory of the determinants of women’s under achievement in large construction companies. PhD. thesis, University of Loughborough
35) Dainty, A. R. J., Bagilhole, B. M. & Heale, R. H. (2001) “Male and female perspective on equality measures for the UK construction sector”, Women in Management Review, 16(6), 297-304
36) Dainty, A. R. J., Bagilhole, B. M. & Neale, R. H. (2000). A grounded theory of women’s career underachievement in large UK construction companies. Construction Management and Economics 18(2), 239-250
37) Dainty, A. R. J., Bagilhole, B. M., Ansari, K. H. & Jackson, J. (2004). Creating equality in the construction industry: an agenda for change for women and ethnic minorities, Journal of Construction Research, 5(1), 75-86
38) Davies, R. (1979). Informal Sector or Subordinate mode of Production: A Model, In R. Bromley and C. Gerry (eds.), Casual Work and Poverty in Third World Cities. New York: Wiley
39) Dorsey, R. W. & Minkarah, E. C. (1993). Women in construction, In: Proceedings of CIB W65, Trinidad, West Indies
40) EOC (2005a). Facts about Men and Women in Great Britain 2005, Equal Opportunities Commission
41) EOC (2005b). Then and now: 30 Years of the Sex Discrimination Act. How has life changed for women and men since 1975?
42) Fapohunda, J. (1985). The Informal Sector of Lagos, Ibadan: University Press Ltd
43) Faruqee, R. (1994). Nigerian: ownership abandoned in Hussein, I. & Faruqee, R. (eds.) adjustment in Africa: lessons from country case studies. Washington, DC: World Bank
44) Federal Office of Statistics (1996). Socio-economic Profile in Nigeria. Lagos: Federal Office of Statistics
45) Fielden, S. L., Davidson, M. J., Gale, A. W. & Davey, C. L. (2000). Women in construction: the untapped resource, Construction Management and Economics, 18(1), 113-21
46) Fielden, S. L., Davidson, M. J., Gale, A. W. & Davey, C. L. (2001). Women, equality and construction, Journal of Management Development, 20(4), 293-304
47) Folorunso, I. (2000). ‘Women Empowerment and the Development of Nigeria in the 21st Century’, African Journal of Social and Policy Studies, 1(2), 126–30
48) Gale, A.W. (1991). What is good for women is good for men: theoretical foundations for action research aimed at increasing the proportion of women in construction management”, in Barret, P. and Males, R. (Eds), Practice Management: New Perspective for the Construction Professional, Chapman and Hall, London
49) Gale, A. W. (1992). The construction industry’s male culture must feminize if conflict is to be reduced: the role of education as a gatekeeper to a male construction industry”, in Fenn, P. and Gameson, R. (Eds), Construction Conflict: Management and Resolution, F.N. Spon, London, pp. 416-27
50) Gale, A.W. (1994). “Women in non-traditional occupations: the construction industry”, Women in Management Review, 9(2), 3-14
51) Gale, A.W. & Skitmore, M. (1990). Women in the construction industry: A discussion on the findings of the two recent studies of the construction industry sector”. In: “Subject I, Management of the building firm. Building Economics and Construction management 6, 209-221
52) Gerry, C. (1978). Petty Production and Capitalist Production in Dakar: The Crisis of the Self employed. World Development, 6, 1147-1160
53) Gilbert, G. L. & Walker, D. H. T. (2001). Motivation of Australian white-collar construction employees: a gender issue? Engineering, Construction end Architectural Management, 8(1), 59-66
54) Ginige, K., Amaratunga, D., & Haigh, R. (2007). Gender stereotypes: A barrier for career development of women in construction. In: Built Environment Education Conference, University of Salford, Manchester, UK.
55) Government of India (1988a). Shramshkati: Report of the National Commission on Self -Employed Women and Women in the Informal Sector, New Delhi
56) Government of India (1988b). Survey of Socio-Economic Conditions of Women in Unorganized Industries, Labour Bureau Ministry of Labour, New Delhi
57) Greed, C. (2000). “Women in the construction professions: achieving critical mass”, Gender, Work and Organization, 7(3), 181-96
58) Gregson, S., Zhuwau, T., Anderson, R. M. & Chandiwana S. (1997). The early socio-demographic impact of the HIV-1 epidemic in rural Zimbabwe. SAfAIDS News, 5, 2-5
59) Gritziotis G. & Stoll P. (2002). Construction Labour Market Information, www.caf-fca.org.
60) Guisinger, S. & M. Irfan. (1980). “Pakistan’s Informal Sector”. Journal of Development Studies, 16, 412- 426
61) Gurjao, S. (2006). Inclusivity: The Changing Role of Women in the Construction Workforce, Chartered Institute of Building Report (CIOB).
62) Hakim, C. (1996). Key issues in women’s work: Female Heterogeneity and the Polarisation of Women’s Employment. Glasshouse, UK.
63) Hibbett, A. & Meager, N, (2003). Key indicators of women’s position in Britain: Findings from a recent comprehensive study of women in Britain commissioned by the Women and Equality Unit. National Statistics: Labour Market Trends, 111(10), 9
64) Hillebrandt, P. M. (1985). Economic Theory and the Construction Industry, The Macmillan Press, London, p. 12.
65) Human Development Report (1998). Published for the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), New York: Oxford University Press
66) Igbeka, J. C. (1993). Some ergonomic studies of Nigerian women in agricultural processing, in C. Annevelink, R. K. Oving and H. W. Vos (eds ), XXV CIOSTA CIGR V Proceedings (The Netherlands, Wageningen Pers, Wageningen ), 183 – 189
67) ILO, (International Labour Organisation) (1972). Employment, Incomes and Equality in Kenya, Geneva: International Labour Office
68) ILO, (2001). The construction industry in the twenty first century: Its image, employment prospects and skill requirements, Tripartite Meeting on the Construction Industry in the Twenty-first Century: Its Image, Employment Prospects and Skill Requirements Geneva, 2001
69) ILO, (2010). Occupational Safety and Health Management in the construction sector 13 – 24 September Turin, Italy
70) ILO, (2009). Global employment trends for women: March 2009 / International Labour Office. - Geneva: ILO
71) ILO, (2012). Employment and Gender Differences in the Informal Economy, PowerPoint presentation, Geneva.
72) Iro M. I. (1976). The Main Features of a Working Life Table of the Female Labour Force in Nigeria, Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, 139(2), 258-264
73) Iro, M. I. (1974). A working life table for males of rural Nigeria: American Statistical Association Social Statistics Section, pp. 340-345.
74) Isaacs, B. (2001). Mystery of the missing engineers: a solution, Journal of Professional Issues in Engineering Education and Practice, 127(2), 85-91
75) Jhabvala, R & Sinha, S (2007). Liberalization and the Woman Worker, www.sewa.org
76) Jhabvala, R & Sinha, S. (2006). Social Protection for Women Workers in the Informal Economy, Comparative labor law & Policy Journal 27(2).
77) Jimoh, R. A., Oyewobi, L. O., Adamu, A. N. & Bajere, P. A. (2016). Women Professionals’ Participation in the Nigerian Construction Industry: Finding Voice for the Voiceless. Organization, Technology and Management in Construction, 8, 1429-1436. https://doi.org/10.1515/otmcj-2016-0005
78) Jwasshaka, S. K. & Amin, N. F. (2020). Gender Discrimination in Building Construction Industry in Nigeria: Threat to Achieving Goal-5 of Vision 2030. World Journal of Engineering and Technology, 8, 33-41.
79) Kehinde, J. O. & Okoli, O. G. (2004). Professional Women and Career Impediments in the Construction Industry in Nigeria, Journal Professional, Issues in Engineering Education and Practice, 130(2), 115-119
80) Labeodan, O. A. (1992). Women in the Informal House-Building Industry in Nigeria, Habitat International, 16(1), 17-24
81) Lavender, S. (2000). Management for the Construction Industry. Longman & CIOB.
82) Lavender, S. (1996). Management for the Construction Industry, Longman, Harlow.
83) Lingard, H. & Sublet, A. (2002). The impact of job and organizational demands on marital or relationship satisfaction and conflict among Australian civil engineers, Construction Management and Economics, 20(6), 507-21
84) MacKenzie, S, Kilpatrick, A. R & Akintoye, A (2000). UK Construction Skills Shortage Response Strategies and an Analysis of Industry Perceptions. Construction Management and Economics, 18, 853-862
85) Mazumdar, D. (1976). The Urban Informal Sector, World Development, 4(8), 655-679.
86) Moser, C. O. N. (1985). Housing Policy and Women: Towards a Gender-Aware Approach, DPU Gender and Planning Working Paper No. 7 Draft document commissioned by Habitat, Nairobi, Kenya
87) Moser, C. O. N. (1978). Informal sector or Petty Commodity Production: Dualism or Dependence in Urban Development, World Development, 6, 1041- 1064
88) Nandal, S. (1995). Cultural Pattern and Economic Participation of Women, Radha Publications, Delhi
89) Nandal, S. (2006). Women workers in unorganized sector: A study on construction industry in Haryana, International Journal of Development Issues, 5(2), 119-132
90) National Bureau of Statistics (2013). http://nigerianstat.gov.ng/
91) National Bureau of Statistics (2020). Retrieved from www.nigerianstat.gov.ng On 11th March, 2021
92) New York Times (November 26, 2007). New York’s Construction Boom Puts More Women in Hard Hats.
93) Nkom, S. A. (1988). Special Programmes for Rural Women, Working Group paper at the DFRRI workshop held at Durbar Hotel, Kaduna Nigeria
94) Nosike, A. N. (1996). ‘Violence Against Women and Sustainable Development: A Contemporary Perspective’, in Yomi Oruwari (ed.), Women, Development and the Nigerian Environment, pp. 53–62. Ibadan: Vantage Publishers.
95) NPC (2006). Nigerian Census 2006, federal government of Nigeria.
96) Odubiyi, T. B. (2018). Nigerian Professional Female Construction Workers in Vocational Occupations: Diversification or Deviation? Organization, Technology and Management in Construction: An International Journal, 10, 1696-1703.
97) Oganwu, P. I. & Omotor, D. G. (2000). ‘Nigerian Rural Women in Sustainable Development: A Socio-Economic Perspective’, African Journal of Social and Policy Studies, 1(2): 64–67.
98) Ogbuigwe, A. E. (1996). ‘Sustainable Development in Nigeria: The Role of Women’, in Yomi Oruwari (ed.), Women Development and the Nigerian Environment, pp. 69–74. Ibadan: Vantage Publishers.
99) Ogunsemi, D. R. (2015). Value for Money in Construction Projects: The Quantity Surveyor’s Quest, being Inaugural Lecture Series 71 at the Federal University of Technology, Akure.
100) Okewole, I. A. (1997). Women’s access to and control of housing accommodation in urban centres of the south-west zone of Nigeria: an assessment, Proceedings of a National Symposium on the House in Nigeria, Ile-Ife, Nigeria, pp. 93-6
101) Okunribido, O. O. (2000). A survey of hand anthropometry of female rural farm workers in Ibadan, Western Nigeria, Ergonomics, 43(2), 282 – 292
102) Olotuah, A. O. & Ajayi, M. A. (2008). Repositioning Women in Housing Development in Nigeria, Indian Journal of Gender Studies, 15: 101
103) Oppong, C. & Abu, K. (1987). Seven Roles of Women: Impact of Education, Migration and Employment on Ghanaian Mothers. Geneva: ILO.
104) Orubuloye, O. (1987). “Values and costs of daughters and sons of Yoruba mothers and fathers”, in Oppong, C. (Ed.), Sex Roles, Population and Development in West Africa, Heineman Educational Books Inc., Portsmouth, NH, pp. 86-90
105) Oruwari, Y. (1992). “The role of women in housing finance: a case study of Port Harcout, Nigeria”, Paper presented at the Fifth International Research Conference on Housing, Montreal
106) Priya, S. K. H. (2002). Violence Against Women Construction Workers in Kerala, India, Charities Aid Foundation, Delhi, India, Prepared for the Global Network for Women's Advocacy and Civil Society
107) Pyke, J. (1993). Women in Building; The Missing 51%. Australian Government Publishing Service, Canberra
108) Reddy, A. (2003). A Socio-Economic Profile of the Construction Workers of Hyderabad City in Anita Banerji, Raj Kumar Sen (ed.), Women and Development
109) Sa’ad, A. (2001). “Traditional Institutions and the Violation of Women’s Human Rights in Africa: The Nigerian Case.” In African Women and Children. Crisis and Response edited by Apollo Rwomire. Westport: Praeger,
110) Schmitz, H. (1982). “Growth Constraints on Small-Scale Manufacturing in Developing Countries: A Critical Review”. World Development, 10(6): 429-450
111) Sethuraman, S. V. (1977). The Urban Informal Sector in Africa”. International Labour Review, 166(3), 343-352
112) SEWA (2000). Labouring Brick by Brick: A Study of Construction Workers, June retrieved on November, 20, 2010 www.sewa.org
113) Sinclair, A. (1998). Doing Leadership Differently. Melbourne University Press, Australia
114) Sodunke, A (2005). Unpublished Bachelor of Technology thesis, the Federal University of Technology Akure , Ondo State
115) Sokomba, M. T. (1990). “The participation of women in design and construction of housing stock in Nigeria”, Proceedings of the Nigerian Indigenous Building Materials Symposium, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria, pp. 213-37
116) Somerville, J., Kennedy, P. & Orr, L. (1993). Women in the UK construction industry, Construction Management and Economics, 11, 4
117) Squirchuk, R. (1996). Women working in non-traditional roles: responses in corporate Australia. In: Proceedings of IIR Conference on Women in Engineering May 8-9, Sydney
118) Stephen, M. (1992). Poverty, Population and the Environment, Background Paper No. 23, World Development Report. Washington, DC: World Bank.
119) Strategic Forum (2002). Rethinking Construction: Accelerating Change, Strategic Forum for Construction, London
120) Tan, W. (2004). Practical Research Methods, Singapore: Prentice Hall Pearson Education South Asia
121) Todaroc, M. P. (1989). Economic Development in the Third World, UK: Longman.
122) Trochim, W. M. (2006). The Research Methods Knowledge Base, (2nd Edition). Accessed on 20th November 2019, at http://www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb
123) Udry, C. (1995). Gender, Agricultural Production and the Theory of the Household, Department of Economics, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL 60208.
124) UNESCO (1995). Nigeria women in science and technology profession, report on the national survey on science and technology potential of Nigerian women, Macmillan, London
125) Uwakweh, B. O. & Maloney, W. F. (1991). Conceptual model for manpower planning for the construction industry in developing countries Construction Management and Economics, 199 1 , 9, 45 1-465
126) Van Staveren, I. & Odebode, O. (2007). Gender Norms as Asymmetric Institutions: A Case Study of Yoruba Women in Nigeria, Journal of economic issues, 61(4)
127) Weeks, J. (1975). “Policies for Expanding Employment in the Informal Sector of Developing Countries”, International Labour Review, 111, 1-13
128) Wells, J. (1999). The informal sector and the construction industry, in Managing Construction Industry Development in Developing Countries, Report on the First Meeting of the CIB Task Group 29, Arusha, Tanzania, 21 - 23 September, CIB, Rotterdam, pp. 111-23.
129) Yankov, L. & Kleiner, B. H. (2001). Human Resource Issues in Construction Industry. Management Research News, 24(3/4), 101-105